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Providing feedback to the peers on your team, consider how well the…
Providing feedback to the peers on your team, consider how well the content of the Literature Review achieves the research purpose and answers the research questions in no less than three words. In addition you can offer feedback on the quality of the critical analysis, grammatical structure and flow of the writing, and the appropriate use of APA.
Women in the Military Leadership: A Review of the Literature
Women have played an important role in the military for centuries, but only in recent decades has the military been fully accessible to them (Robinson & O’Hanlon, 2020). When women were first recognized as military members in 1948, they were only allowed to … In regard to leadership positions, they… (cite historians report) Changes in social attitudes, the increasing integration of women into the military, and the recognition of the unique skills and perspectives that women bring to the table have contributed to the expansion of women’s involvement in the military. The research on women in military leadership is still in its early stages, but a growing body of evidence suggests that women leaders are just as effective as men leaders, some even suggesting women possess more desirable leadership traits than men (Eagly, 2007). For example, studies have shown that teams with more women leaders are more innovative and perform better. Additionally, studies have shown that women leaders are more likely to be collaborative and inclusive in their decision-making, which can lead to better outcomes (Wooley et al., 2010).
Despite the fact that women represent 50.4% of the United States population and 47% of the labor force, they are underrepresented in the military (Women in the labor force: a Databook, 2022; US Census Bureau, Population Estimates Program, 2023). Women comprise only 17% of military personnel and 11% of general officers (Demographics Profile of the Military Community, 2021). Only six women have reached four-star rank, starting with General Ann Dunwoody of the U.S. Army in 2008 (Robinson & O’Hanlon, 2020). Since then, the United States has named 100 four-star military officers, yet only 6% were women. There has not yet been a female Joint Chiefs of Staff member, a female secretary of defense, or a deputy secretary (Robinson & O’Hanlon, 2020). Although progress has been made, women still face several challenges in achieving leadership roles. For example, they are often underrepresented in leadership positions and may face gender-based scrutiny and discrimination (Brown et al., 2021). Additionally, women leaders may have to balance their military careers with their personal lives, which can be difficult. This research aims to synthesize the existing research on active-duty servicewomen in leadership positions. It also aims to answer how women in leadership positions affect organizational performance, what challenges and barriers do women face in achieving and succeeding in military leadership positions, and how the military supports and develops female leaders.
Research Questions
This research aims to synthesize the existing research on active-duty servicewomen in leadership positions. The literature review will attempt to answer the following research questions:
How do women in leadership positions affect organizational performance?
What challenges and barriers do women face in achieving military leadership positions?
How is the military supporting and developing female leaders?
The review will draw on research from various fields, including mixed media data. The review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of knowledge on this topic and identify areas for future research.
Research Question One: How women affect organizational performance
Women in leadership positions can positively impact organizational performance in many ways. There is a growing body of research that suggests that women’s leadership can have a positive impact on military performance. A study by the Center for Strategic and International Studies found that women-led units in the US military are more likely to be successful in combat missions (Salera, 2023). This success can be attributed to many different variables, but according to XXXX , some essential traits needed to maintain an effective team are diverse thought, team cohesion, and strong morale. Studies have shown that women leaders are often more collaborative and inclusive in their leadership style. This can lead to better decision-making and higher employee engagement. Studies also suggest that women are better at building and maintaining relationships, which can lead to more cohesive teams. Dr. Durrante (2021) states,
Men gain perspective, insight, and encouragement from diverse female colleagues to become better and more inclusive leaders. At work, men with female friends accrue more information about the company and enjoy more social support, broader networks, and more career opportunities. The social interactions men experience in close friendships with women help men to critically evaluate gender stereotypes, consider new perspectives, and reduce their own anxiety about engaging with women.
This is important because cohesive teams are more effective and perform better.
Boost morale: Other studies have shown that units with women in leadership positions have higher morale. This is important because morale is essential for organizational performance…. Add more info…
Attract and retain top talent: Women make up over half of the US population, so having more women in leadership positions can help the organization attract and retain more talent. In a study conducted by RAND, female survey participants stated that they preferred female recruiters because they appreciated their ability to address female-specific questions (Douglas et al., 2017). In that study, 78% of focus group participants recommended more female recruiters to increase female recruitment (Douglas et al., 2017). When there are more women in the military organization, more women are encouraged to join. From a leadership perspective, having more women in leadership positions also can provide an avenue to address recruitment issues. In 2020, Chief Master Sargent JoAnne Bass became the first female Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force, and the highest-ranking noncommissioned officer in any of the United States military services. While in the position, she advocated for policy implementation to increase Air Force diversity. During her administration, she implemented a strategic plan to increase diversity hiring, which resulted in an increase of 30% female pilot candidates from previous years (XXX). Women leaders can play a key role in creating a culture where everyone feels welcome and included. This can be done by promoting diversity in hiring, creating employee resource groups, and offering unconscious bias training.
Enhance mission effectiveness: Women leaders can bring new skills and perspectives to the table, which can help the organization achieve its mission more effectively. “A ready military force is one that actively fosters the inclusion of women and their commensurate representation in senior leadership roles. In responding to crises, research finds that female leaders and diverse groups with broad perspectives outperform homogenous groups” (Zenger & Folkman, 2022). Women leaders can bring new skills and perspectives to the table, which can help the organization achieve its mission more effectively. While it is important to note that not all women leaders are the same, the overall evidence suggests that women possess the qualities needed to lead a highly effective team.
Research Question Two: Challenges to achieving leadership positions
Women in the military face many gender-specific challenges that can prevent them from achieving leadership positions, including gender discrimination, unconscious bias, and work-life balance.
Gender discrimination: Women may face discrimination from their male colleagues and superiors. This can take many forms, including being passed over for promotions, being given less challenging assignments, and being harassed or excluded from social events. Access to leadership positions in the military, especially at the general officer level, is directly linked to combat specialties. Eighty percent of our general officers are drawn from combat specialties from which women have been excluded until recently (Haring, 2013). Although women are now allowed in all specialties, it will take several years before we see an increase in female generals if the majority of general officers are still chosen from combat specialties.
Unconscious bias: Even people who are committed to gender equality may have unconscious biases against women. Past research has established that women in leadership roles experience greater levels of prejudice and unfavorable perceptions compared to men (DePasquale, 2020). This can lead to women being treated differently than men, even when it is not intentional. During the 1992 Presidential Commission on the Assignment of Women in the Armed Forces, one TOPGUN instructor made the following statement to the commission,
We don’t believe that you can act as a unit unless you keep it the way it is, here it’s the bondingit’s that intangible, the bonding, that makes a squadron good, better, and we don’t believe you can have that go on if we have females in aviation (Harring, 2013).
A 2019 study by the Center for Strategic and International Studies found that women in the military are more likely than men to experience discrimination, harassment, and retaliation. The study also found that women are less likely to be promoted than men . According to Brenda Farrells report to Congress (2020), found that enlisted women’s promotion rates were between .1-2.5% percentage points lower than enlisted men from 2004-2018. In another study of the gender differences in how leaders determine succession potential, the authors found correlations in their data confirming that for male leaders, are more likely to take interpersonal fit perceptions into account when making successor judgments than female leaders. We conducted a second experimental study to examine the role of interpersonal fit in successor decisions more directly. Replicating Study 1, we again found that male leaders, compared to female leaders (Floor Rink et al., 2019). The article states,
It has been argued that when it comes to leadership succession decisions, those at the top, who are overwhelmingly men, show a preference for promoting others with whom they share similar traits and characteristics or those with whom they have a positive interpersonal relationship. A recent meta-analysis (Koch et al., 2015) suggests that both stereotypes and interpersonal liking or similarity mutually reinforce each other. In this way, a preference for leadership successors that match traditionally (male) notions of leadership also enhances similarity at the top of organizations. This process, in turn, further limits the career possibilities of those who do not fit within a masculine culture.
Work-life balance: Women in the military are more likely than men to leave the service. The study cited work-life balance challenges as a key reason for leaving. Many women bear an unbalanced load of work and family responsibilities. Active-duty moms find meeting family commitments challenging and consider their family responsibilities when deciding to continue serving or separating from the service (Keller et al., 2018, p. 15). Talk about gender roles and stats…. When it comes to addressing the issues of underrepresentation, it is important to examine the barriers that keep women from pursuing military service, most notably, that it remains very hard to have a family while in military service, and this is true even more for women than men given the realities of biology (Robinson & O’Hanlon, 2020). Active-duty Air Force moms face distinct and unique challenges compared to their male counterparts. Motherhood, coupled with the demands of military service, including deployments, extended work hours, frequent relocations, can significantly impact work/life balance. (Farrell, 2020, p. 36). If women are forced to choose between raising children and continuing a career in the U.S. military, the majority will continue to separate too soon, preventing them from the opportunity to reach leadership positions.
Despite these challenges, women are making significant contributions to military leadership. As more women rise to leadership positions, we can expect to see a change in the culture of the military and a more inclusive environment for all.
Research Question Three: How the military is supporting and developing female leaders
The United States military has taken a number of steps to support and develop female leaders in recent years.
Establishing working groups to identify and address barriers. Department of the Air Force Barrier Analysis Working Groups (DAFBAWG), specifically the Women’s Initiative Team (WIT), work to identify barriers to diversity, equal opportunity, equity, inclusion, and accessibility while also finding solutions to eliminate them (Charter, 2021, p. 2). The work conducted by DAFBAWG and the WIT indirectly and directly supports improving conditions for women. The United States also passed the Women, Peace, and Security Act of 2017, establishing as policy the “meaningful participation of women in conflict prevention, management, and resolution, and post-conflict relief and recovery efforts.” This followed United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325 in 2000, which urged the increased participation of women and incorporated gender perspectives in peace and security efforts (Salera, 2023).
Creating mentorship programs. The DoD offers a number of mentorship programs for women, including the Women’s Mentoring Program and the Women’s Leadership Development Program. These programs connect women with more experienced leaders who can provide guidance and support. Another example of the mentorship programs offered is the Joint Women’s Leadership Symposium, which is an annual symposium is the largest gathering of women in uniform service females in the world. At the symposium, military personnel from all service branches can come together and mentorship… (site symposium website).
Offering flexible work arrangements. Career paths that offer more ways to return to military service after an extended absence, such as childbirth, have been developed by the military services. One example of such a program is the Career Intermission Program. This program allows military members the opportunity to temporarily separate from the military. Under the program, the service member retains their medical benefits, leave balance, and receives a small percentage of their basic pay while on the program,. This retention tool allows both men and women opportunity to adjust to life changes and continue servicing. The DoD also offers a number of flexible work arrangements, such as part-time employment in the Nation Guard or reserves and telework. Studies have shown teleworking has positive effects on active-duty moms’ work-life balance, including improved sleep, improved job satisfaction, more personal time, ability to conduct family commitments with the flexible schedule) (McElheny, 2023, p. 10-11).
Conclusion
Women’s role in the military has changed significantly over the years. In the past, women were primarily limited to support roles, but today, they serve in all branches of the military and in a wide range of occupations. This change has been driven by a number of factors, including social change, the need for a more diverse military, and the recognition that women are just as capable as men of serving in the military. Despite the progress that has been made, women are still underrepresented in leadership positions and face a number of barriers to reaching leadership in the military. It is not enough just to do better with the younger and more junior demographics, we need more women in the senior rank of the military; which means finding ways for women to remain in the military and be promoted to senior leadership positions. This literature is not advocating that one gender of leaders is better than another. It is advocating for equal or more proportional distribution of representation in leadership to build a more effective military force. There is a lack of understanding of the challenges and opportunities women face in military leadership. More research is needed to understand the barriers women face to advancing into leadership positions in the military and the factors that contribute to their success. Research on women in military leadership can help to create a more inclusive and equitable military and to ensure that it can draw on the talents and skills of all of its members.
References
AFA Congratulates CMSgt Joanne Bass on Becoming the 19Th Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force. (2020, June 19). States News Service.
Brown, E. K., Guthrie, K. M., Stange, M., & Creech, S. (2021). “A Woman in A Man’s World”: A Pilot Qualitative Study of Challenges Faced by Women Veterans During and After Deployment. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 22(2), 202-219. https://doi-org.umassglobal.idm.oclc.org/10.1080/15299732.2020.1869068
Charter: Department of the Air Force Barrier Analysis Working Group (DAFBAWG). (2021). Air Force Portal.
The Data on Women Leaders, (2021). Pews Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/fact-sheet/the-data-on-women-leaders/.
Demographics Profile Military Demographics Profile. (2021). Office of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Military Community and Family Policy. https://download.militaryonesource.mil/12038/MOS/Reports/2021-demographics-report.pdf
DePasquale, A. M. (2020). Perception of military leadership: The role of gender in performance evaluation [ProQuest Information & Learning]. In Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences (Vol. 81, Issue 3-A).
Douglas Yeung, Lawrence M. Hanser, Christina E Steiner, Kristy N. Kamarck, & Chaitra M. Hardison. (2017). Recruiting Policies and Practices for Women in the Military: Views from the Field.
Durante, K., Kaplowitz, L.S., Johnson, W., Smith, D. (2021). How men benefit from close relationships with women at work. Rutgers Business School. https://www.business.rutgers.edu/business-insights/how-men-benefit-close-relationships-women-work.
Eagly, A. H. (2007). Female Leadership Advantage and Disadvantage: Resolving the Contradictions. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31(1), 1-12.
Farrell, B.S. (2020). Report to Congressional Committees: FEMALE ACTIVE-DUTY PERSONNEL: Guidance and Plans Needed for Recruitment and Retention Efforts. (GAO-20-61). Government Accountability Office. https://www.gao.gov/assets/gao-20-61.pdf.
Floor Rink, Janka I. Stoker, Michelle K. Ryan, Niklas K. Steffens, & Anne Nederveen Pieterse. (2019). Gender Differences in How Leaders Determine Succession Potential: The Role of Interpersonal Fit With Followers. Frontiers in Psychology, 10. https://doi-org.umassglobal.idm.oclc.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00752
Haring, E. L. (2013, June 22). What women bring to the fight. Parameters, 43(2), 27.
Keller, K.M., Hall, K.C., Matthews, M., Payne, L.A., Saum-Manning, L., Yeung, D., Schulker, D., Savislan, Stefen., & Lim, N. (2018). Addressing Barriers to Female Officer Retention in the Air Force. RAND Corporation. https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/AD1057239.pdf.
Koch, A. J., D’Mello, S. D., & Sackett, P. R. (2015). A meta-analysis of gender stereotypes and bias in experimental simulations of employment decision making. Journal of Applied Psychology, 100(1), 128-161. https://doi-
